"ज्ञानकोश" च्या विविध आवृत्यांमधील फरक

विकिपीडिया, मुक्‍त ज्ञानकोशातून
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११:४६, २७ फेब्रुवारी २०१३ ची आवृत्ती

Brockhaus Konversations-Lexicon, 1902

ज्ञानकोश (इंग्लिश: encyclopedia, encyclopaedia;) हा कोशसाहित्याचा एक प्रकार आहे. ज्ञानकोशात विविध विषयांवरची माहिती अकारविल्हेसारखी विशिष्ट रचना करून साठवलेली असते. एखाद्या विषयाची तोंडओळख करून घ्यायला ज्ञानकोश हे उत्तम साधन आहे.

काही वेळा ज्ञानकोशाला त्याच अर्थाने विश्वकोश किंवा विश्वज्ञानकोश असेही म्हटले जाते. ज्ञानकोश म्हणजे ज्ञानाच्या सर्व शाखा किंवा एखाद्या विशिष्ट शाखेची बहुव्यापक माहिती लिहिलेला बहुसमावेशक सारग्रंथ[विशिष्ट अर्थ पहा] (compendium) होय. अशा ज्ञानकोशात विषयवार एकएक लेख असतो. अनेकदा, ज्ञानकोशातील मजकुराचे प्रचंड मोजमाप विचारात घेता बहुधा त्याची रचना अनेक खंडांमध्ये केलेली असते. तरीसुद्धा एकखंडी ज्ञानकोश अनेक आहेत. इंग्लंडमधले चेंबर्स हे विश्वविद्यालय असे एकखंडी ज्ञानकोश प्रसिद्ध करीत असते. मराठीत अनेकखंडी ज्ञानकोशांप्रमाणे अनेक एकखंडी ज्ञानकोशही आहेत. विषयवार लेख बहु्धा लेखनावाच्या आद्याक्षरानुक्रमे मांडलेले असतात.[१]

ज्ञानकोश विविध प्रकारचे असतात. एका विशिष्ट विषयापुरते किंवा अनेक विषयांची वेचक संकलित माहिती देणारे सर्वसमावेशक, असेही ज्ञानकोशही असतात.

विहंगावलोकन

शब्दकोशाची व्याप्ती भाषेतील शब्द, त्यांचे अर्थ, उच्चार आणि व्याकरण देण्यापुरतीच मर्यादित असते. शब्दकोशात अर्थ स्पष्ट करण्यासाठी प्रसंगी चित्रे आणि क्वचित नकाशेही असतात. पण कोणत्याही प्रकारची सखोल माहिती नसते. याउलट, ज्ञानकोश ज्ञानशाखेतील विविध संज्ञांची तपशीलवार माहिती देत असतो. आणखी त्यापलीकडे जाऊन, या माहितीचे विश्लेषण करणे, ज्ञानशाखांशी असलेली विस्तृत पार्श्वभूमी विशद करणे, आणि संदर्भ उपलब्ध करून देणे ही कामेही ज्ञानकोश करतो.

अनेक ज्ञानकोशांत चित्रे, नकाशे, आराखडे, आधारभूत पुस्तकांचे संदर्भ आणि सांख्यिकीय माहिती असते. सामन्यतः सुशिक्षित, माहिती-विशेषज्ञ अशा तज्ज्ञांच्या संशोधनाने आणि मार्गदर्शनाखाली ज्ञानकोशांची निर्मिती होत असते.

ज्याला एखाद्या विषयाची संक्षिप्त आणि विश्वासार्ह माहिती हवी असेल असा माणूस कधी ना कधी ज्ञानकोशाची पाने चाळतो. अशा ज्ञानकोशांत साक्षेपी(संदर्भ असलेली काही विरुद्ध मते असल्यास, त्यांच्यासह), शक्य तिथे संदर्भ असलेली, वस्तुनिष्ठ आणि तटस्थपणे दिलेली माहिती मिळ्ते.

इथे वाचकांना भाषेचे सौंदर्य अपेक्षित नसते, तर निव्वळ ज्ञान आणि माहिती हवी असते. वाचकाचा दृष्टिकोन: आम्ही ज्ञानकोश मोजक्या तथ्यांसाठी आणि आकडेवारीसाठी वाचतो. येथे आम्हाला इतरांची परस्परविरोधी मते विशिष्ट संदर्भासहित मिळावीत. पण आमचे मन आणि विचार प्रभावित करण्याकरिता ज्ञानकोशांतील लेखकांचे मत त्यात मिसळू नका असा असतो. कोशांतील लेख वाचून वाचक आपले मत बनवतो.


सारे विश्वकोश, विश्वकोशाची विश्वासार्हता जपण्याकरिता केवळ वस्तुनिष्ठ लेखन करण्याचा संकेत पाळत असतात. त्यामुळे शब्दांचा(स्वतः जोडलेल्या विशेषणांचा) फुलोरा असलेले, स्वतःच दिलेला व्यक्तिगत दुजोरा देणारे, इत्यादी ललित लेखन किंवा ब्लॉग या स्वरूपातील लेखन विश्वकोशात नसते..

ज्ञानकोशांची वर्गवारी विषय, व्याप्ती, संकलनाची आणि मांडणीची पद्धत, उत्पादन किंवा उपलब्धतेच्या पद्धतीनुसार करता येते.[१].ज्ञानकोशब्रिटानिका ज्ञानकोशाप्रमाणे सामान्य ज्ञान किंवा विशिष्ट विषयांना वाहून घेतलेले असू शकतात. शब्दकोशांशी जोडलेले असू शकतात किंवा ते भौगोलिक स्वरूपाच्या दर्शनिका(गॅझेटियर) असू शकतात. ज्ञानकोशातील विवरण पद्धतशीर असते. विषयांचा अनुक्रम बर्‍याचदा मुळाक्षरांनुसार किंवा विषय-सुसंगत असतो.

आधुनिक संगणक, इंटरनेट व इलेक्ट्रॉनिक माध्यमांमुळे ज्ञानकोशांच्या मांडणीत आमूलाग्र बदल घडत आहेत. अनुक्रम लावणे, शोधयंत्राचा सुलभ वापर करणे, परस्परसंदर्भ देणे अशा गोष्टी सुकर झाल्या आहेत. माहितीचे संकलन, पडताळणी, संक्षिप्तीकरण, सादरीकरण यात महत्त्वपूर्ण बदल घडत असून विकिपीडिया,h2g२ इत्यादीं गोष्टी, या सुधारणांनी कायकाय शक्य आहे हे सांगणारी ज्वलंत उदाहरणे आहेत. काही ज्ञानकोशांची सीडी मिळते किंवा काही ज्ञानकोश आंतरजालावर वाचायला किंवा उतरवून घ्यायला उपलब्ध असतात.

ज्ञानकोशांचा इतिहास

मराठीतील ज्ञानकोशरचनेची परंपरा

महाराष्ट्रीय ज्ञानकोश हा मराठीतील पहिला ज्ञानकोश आहे. डॉ. श्रीधर व्यंकटेश केतकर आणि त्यांच्या सहकाऱ्यांनी हा प्रकल्प आपल्या प्रयत्नांनी तडीस नेला.

आणखी पाहा

कोश,मुक्त ज्ञानकोश,विकिपीडिया


व्युत्पत्ती

The word "encyclopaedia" comes from the Classical Greek साचा:Polytonic (transliterated "enkyklios paideia"), literally, a "[well-]rounded education", meaning "general knowledge". Though the notion of a compendium of knowledge dates back thousands of years, the term was first used in the title of a book in 1541 by Joachimus Fortius Ringelbergius, Lucubrationes vel potius absolutissima kyklopaideia (Basel, 1541). The word encyclopaedia was first used as a noun in the title of his book by the Croatian encyclopedist Pavao Skalić in his Encyclopaedia seu orbis disciplinarum tam sacrarum quam prophanarum epistemon (Encyclopaedia, or Knowledge of the World of Disciplines, Basel, 1559). One of the oldest vernacular uses was by François Rabelais in his Pantagruel in 1532.[२][३]

Several encyclopaedias have names that include the suffix -p(a)edia, e.g., Banglapedia (on matters relevant for Bengal).

In British usage, the spellings encyclopedia and encyclopaedia are both current.[४] Although the latter is considered more "proper", the former is becoming more common due to the encroachment of American English. In American usage, only the former is commonly used.[५] The spelling encyclopædia—with the æ ligature—was frequently used in the 19th century and is increasingly rare, although it is retained in product titles such as Encyclopædia Britannica and others. The ऑक्सफर्ड इंग्लिश डिक्शनरी (१९८९) records encyclopædia and encyclopaedia as equal alternatives (in that order), and notes the æ would be obsolete except that it is preserved in works that have Latin titles. Webster's Third New International Dictionary (1997–2002) features encyclopedia as the main headword and encyclopaedia as a minor variant. In addition, cyclopedia and cyclopaedia are now rarely-used shortened forms of the word originating in the 17th century.

वैशिष्ट्ये

The encyclopaedia as we recognize it today was developed from the dictionary in the 18th century. Historically, both encyclopaedias and dictionaries have been researched and written by well-educated, well-informed content experts, but they are significantly different in structure. A dictionary primarily focuses on alphabetical listing of words and their definitions. Synonymous words and those related by the विषय matter are to be found scattered around the dictionary, giving no obvious place for in-depth treatment. Thus, a dictionary typically provides limited information, analysis or background for the word defined. While it may offer a definition, it may leave the reader still lacking in understanding the meaning, significance or limitations of a term, and how the term relates to a broader field of knowledge.

To address those needs, an encyclopaedia लेख covers not a word, but a विषय or discipline. As well as listing synonymous terms for the topic, the लेख is able to treat it in more depth and convey the most relevant accumulated knowledge on that विषय. An encyclopaedia लेख also often includes many maps and illustrations, as well as bibliography and statistics.

Four major elements define an encyclopaedia: its विषय matter, its scope, its method of organization, and its method of production:

  • Encyclopaedias can be general, containing लेख on topics in every field (the English-language Encyclopædia Britannica and German Brockhaus are well-known examples). General encyclopaedias often contain guides on how to do a variety of things, as well as embedded dictionaries and gazetteers. There are also encyclopaedias that cover a wide variety of topics but from a particular cultural, ethnic, or national perspective, such as the Great Soviet Encyclopedia or Encyclopaedia Judaica.
  • Works of encyclopedic scope aim to convey the important accumulated knowledge for their विषय domain, such as an encyclopaedia of medicine, philosophy, or law. Works vary in the breadth of material and the depth of discussion, depending on the target audience. (For example, the Medical encyclopaedia produced by A.D.A.M., Inc. for the U.S. National Institutes of Health.)
  • Some systematic method of organization is essential to making an encyclopaedia usable as a work of reference. There have historically been two main methods of organizing printed encyclopaedias: the alphabetical method (consisting of a number of separate लेख, organised in alphabetical order), or organization by hierarchical categories. The former method is today the most common by far, especially for general works. The fluidity of electronic media, however, allows new possibilities for multiple methods of organization of the same content. Further, electronic media offer previously unimaginable capabilities for search, indexing and cross reference. The epigraph from Horace on the title page of the 18th century Encyclopédie suggests the importance of the structure of an encyclopaedia: "What grace may be added to commonplace matters by the power of order and connection."
  • As modern multimedia and the information age have evolved, they have had an ever-increasing effect on the collection, verification, summation, and presentation of information of all kinds. Projects such as Everything2, Encarta, h2g2, and विकिपीडिया are examples of new forms of the encyclopaedia as information retrieval becomes simpler. More specifically, Wikipedia has received acclaim for its scholarly nature, succinctness, verifiability, accuracy, and neutrality.साचा:Fact

Some works entitled "dictionaries" are actually similar to encyclopaedias, especially those concerned with a particular field (such as the Dictionary of the Middle Ages, the Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, and Black's Law Dictionary). The Macquarie Dictionary, Australia's national dictionary, became an encyclopedic dictionary after its first edition in recognition of the use of proper nouns in common communication, and the words derived from such proper nouns. Although the line between dictionary and encyclopedia is somewhat blurry, one test is that an encyclopedia as a factual work can reasonably be translated, whereas a dictionary as a linguistic work, cannot.[६]

इतिहास

प्राचीन भारतीय परंपरा

महाराष्ट्रीय आणि मराठी इतिहास

महाराष्ट्राच्या इतिहासात माहिती संकलनाच्या लोकपरंपरेचा, कोशांचा बर्‍याचदा गाथा आणि समकालीन संस्कृत साहित्यात निघंटु असा उल्लेख आढळतो. गाथा सप्तशप्ती ही सर्वांत जुनी मराठी गाथा आहे.

  • अलीकडील काळ


प्लिनी द एल्डर

Naturalis Historia, 1669 edition, title page.

One of the earliest encyclopedic works to have survived to modern times is the Naturalis Historia of Pliny the Elder, a Roman statesman living in the first century AD. He compiled a work of 37 chapters covering natural history, art and architecture, medicine, geography, geology and all aspects of the world around him. He stated in the preface that he had compiled 20,000 facts from 2000 different works by 100 authors, and added many others from his own experience. The work was published in 77 AD, although he probably never finished proofing the work before his untimely death in the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD.

The scheme of his great work is vast and comprehensive, being nothing short of a compendium of learning and of art so far as they are connected with nature, or draw their materials from nature. He admits that

My विषय is a barren one - the world of nature, or in other words life; and that विषय in its least elevated department, and employing either rustic terms or foreign, nay barbarian words that actually have to be introduced with an apology. Moreover, the path is not a beaten highway of authorship, nor one in which the mind is eager to range: there is not one of us who has made the same venture, nor yet one Greek who has tackled single-handed all departments of the विषय.

And he admits the problems of writing such a work:

It is a difficult task to give novelty to what is old, authority to what is new, brilliance to the common-place, light to the obscure, attraction to the stale, credibility to the doubtful, but nature to all things and all her properties to nature.

Although there were earlier works of a similar nature, by Marcus Terentius Varro for example, his was the only one to survive the Dark ages. It became very popular in the Roman world, and survived, with many copies being made and distributed in the western world. It was one of the first classical manuscripts to be printed in 1469, and has remained popular ever since as a source of information on the Roman world, and especially Roman art, Roman technology and Roman engineering. It is also a recognised source for medicine, Roman art, mineralogy, zoology, botany, geology and many other topics not discussed by other classical authors. Among many interesting entries are those for the elephant and the murex snail, the much sought-after source of Tyrian purple dye.

Although his work has been criticized for the lack of candor in checking the "facts", some of his text has been confirmed by recent research, like the spectacular remains of Roman gold mines in Spain, especially at Las Medulas, which Pliny probably saw in operation while a Procurator there a few years before he compiled the encyclopedia. Although many of the mining methods are now redundant, such as hushing and fire-setting, it is Pliny who recorded them for posterity, so helping us understand their importance in a modern context. Pliny makes clear in the preface to the work that he had checked his facts by reading and comparing the works of others, as well as referring to them by name. Many such books are now lost works and are remembered by his references, much like the lost sources mentioned in the work of Vitruvius a century earlier.

मध्ययुग Middle Ages

First printed edition of 1472 (by Guntherus Zainer, Augsburg), title page of book 14 (de terra et partibus), illustrated with a T and O map.

Saint Isidore of Seville, one of the greatest scholars of the early Middle Ages, is widely recognized as being the author of the first known encyclopedia of the Middle Ages, the Etymologiae (around 630), in which he compiled a sizable portion of the learning available at his time, both ancient and modern. The encyclopedia has 448 chapters in 20 volumes, and is valuable because of the quotes and fragments of texts by other authors that would have been lost had they not been collected by Saint Isidore.

Bartholomeus Anglicus' De proprietatibus rerum (1240) was the most widely read and quoted encyclopedia in the High Middle Ages[७] while Vincent of Beauvais's Speculum Majus (1260) was the most ambitious encyclopedia in the late-medieval period at over 3 million words.[७]

अरबी आणि फार्सीArabic and Persian

The early Muslim compilations of knowledge in the Middle Ages included many comprehensive works, and much development of what we now call scientific method, historical method, and citation. About year 960, the Brethren of Purity of Basra[८] were engaged in their Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity. Notable works include Abu Bakr al-Razi's encyclopedia of science, the Mutazilite Al-Kindi's prolific output of 270 books, and Ibn Sina's medical encyclopedia, which was a standard reference work for centuries. Also notable are works of universal history (or sociology) from Asharites, al-Tabri, al-Masudi, Tabari's History of the Prophets and Kings, Ibn Rustah, al-Athir, and Ibn Khaldun, whose Muqadimmah contains cautions regarding trust in written records that remain wholly applicable today. These scholars had an incalculable influence on methods of research and editing, due in part to the Islamic practice of isnad which emphasized fidelity to written record, checking sources, and skeptical inquiry.

By preserving Latin and Greek texts which would otherwise have been lost, they helped to rekindle the search for knowledge and methods of natural philosophy which would revive again during the Renaissance.

चीन

मुख्य पान: Chinese encyclopedia

The enormous encyclopedic work in China of the Four Great Books of Song, compiled by the 11th century during the early Song Dynasty (960–1279), was a massive literary undertaking for the time. The last encyclopedia of the four, the Prime Tortoise of the Record Bureau, amounted to 9.4 million Chinese characters in 1000 written volumes. There were many great encyclopedists throughout Chinese history, including the scientist and statesman Shen Kuo (1031–1095) with his Dream Pool Essays of 1088, the statesman, inventor, and agronomist Wang Zhen (active 1290–1333) with his Nong Shu of 1313, and the written Tiangong Kaiwu of Song Yingxing (1587–1666), the latter of whom was termed the "Diderot of China" by British historian Joseph Needham.[९]

The Chinese emperor Yongle of the Ming Dynasty oversaw the compilation of the Yongle Encyclopedia, one of the largest encyclopedias in history, which was completed in 1408 and comprised over 370 million Chinese characters in 11,000 handwritten volumes, of which only about 400 remain today. In the succeeding dynasty, emperor Qianlong of the Qing Dynasty personally composed 40,000 poems as part of a 4.7 million page library in 4 divisions, including thousands of essays, called the Siku Quanshu which is probably the largest collection of books in the world. It is instructive to compare his title for this knowledge, Watching the waves in a Sacred Sea to a Western-style title for all knowledge. Encyclopedic works, both in imitation of Chinese encyclopedias and as independent works of their own origin, have been known to exist in Japan since the ninth century CE.

These works were all hand copied and thus rarely available, beyond wealthy patrons or monastic men of learning: they were expensive, and usually written for those extending knowledge rather than those using it.[७]

१७वे–१९वे शतक

Encyclopédie, 1773

The beginnings of the modern idea of the general-purpose, widely distributed printed encyclopedia precede the 18th century encyclopedists. However, Chambers' Cyclopedia, or Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (1728), and the Encyclopédie of Diderot and D'Alembert (1751 onwards), as well as Encyclopædia Britannica and the Conversations-Lexikon, were the first to realize the form we would recognize today, with a comprehensive scope of topics, discussed in depth and organized in an accessible, systematic method—although it is notable that to an extent Chambers, in 1728, was following the still earlier lead of John Harris' Lexicon Technicum, of 1704 and later editions (see also below), which was also by its title and content "A Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences: Explaining not only the Terms of Art, but the Arts Themselves".

Much encyclopaedism of the French Renaissance was based upon the notion of not including every fact known to humans, but only that knowledge that was necessary, where necessity was judged by a wide variety of criteria, leading to works of greatly varying sizes. Béroalde de Verville laid the foundation for his encyclopaedic works in a hexameral poem entitled Les cognoissances nécessaires for example. Often, the criteria had moral bases, such as in the case of Pierre de La Primaudaye's L'Academie Française and Guillaume Telin's Bref sommaire des sept vertus &c.. Encyclopaedists encountered several problems with this approach, including how to decide what to omit as unnecessary, how to structure knowledge that resisted structure (often simply as a consequence of the sheer amount of material that deserved inclusion), and how to cope with the influx of newly discovered knowledge and the effects that it had on prior structures.[१०]

The term encyclopaedia was coined by 15th century humanists who misread copies of their texts of Pliny and Quintilian, and combined the two Greek words "enkuklios paideia" into one word.

The English physician and philosopher, Sir Thomas Browne, specifically employed the word encyclopaedia as early as 1646 in the preface to the reader to describe his Pseudodoxia Epidemica or Vulgar Errors, a series of refutations of common errors of his age. Browne structured his encyclopaedia upon the time-honoured schemata of the Renaissance, the so-called 'scale of creation' which ascends a hierarchical ladder via the mineral, vegetable, animal, human, planetary and cosmological worlds. Browne's compendium went through no less than five editions, each revised and augmented, the last edition appearing in 1672. Pseudodoxia Epidemica found itself upon the bookshelves of many educated European readers for throughout the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries it was translated, for many years it was not thought compatible with the French and Dutcheze, into the French, Dutch and German languages as well as Latin.

Harris' Lexicon Technicum, title page of 2nd edition, 1708

John Harris is often credited with introducing the now-familiar alphabetic format in 1704 with his English Lexicon Technicum: Or, A Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences: Explaining not only the Terms of Art, but the Arts Themselves – to give its full title. Organized alphabetically, its content does indeed contain explanation not merely of the terms used in the arts and sciences, but of the arts and sciences themselves. Sir Isaac Newton contributed his only published work on chemistry to the second volume of 1710. Its emphasis was on science—and conformably to the broad 18th-century understanding of the term 'science', its content extends beyond what would be called science or technology today, and includes topics from the humanities and fine arts, e.g. a substantial number from law, commerce, music, and heraldry. At about 1200 pages, its scope can be considered as more that of an encyclopedic dictionary than a true encyclopedia. Harris himself considered it a dictionary; the work is one of the first technical dictionaries in any language.साचा:Fact

Ephraim Chambers published his Cyclopaedia in 1728. It included a broad scope of विषय, used an alphabetic arrangement, relied on many different contributors and included the innovation of cross-referencing other sections within लेख. Chambers has been referred to as the father of the modern encyclopedia for this two-volume work.

A French translation of Chambers' work inspired the Encyclopédie, perhaps the most famous early encyclopedia, notable for its scope, the quality of some contributions, and its political and cultural impact in the years leading up to the French revolution. The Encyclopédie was edited by Jean le Rond d'Alembert and Denis Diderot and published in 17 volumes of लेख, issued from 1751 to 1765, and 11 volumes of illustrations, issued from 1762 to 1772. Five volumes of supplementary material and a two volume index, supervised by other editors, were issued from 1776 to 1780 by Charles Joseph Panckoucke.

The Encyclopédie represented the essence of the French Enlightenment.[११] The prospectus stated an ambitious goal: the Encyclopédie was to be a systematic analysis of the "order and interrelations of human knowledge."[१२] Diderot, in his Encyclopédie लेख of the same name, went further: "to collect all the knowledge that now lies scattered over the face of the earth, to make known its general structure to the men among we live, and to transmit it to those who will come after us," to make men not only wiser but also "more virtuous and more happy."[१३]

Realizing the inherent problems with the model of knowledge he had created, Diderot's view of his own success in writing the Encyclopédie were far from ecstatic. Diderot envisioned the perfect encyclopedia as more than the sum of its parts. In his own लेख on the encyclopedia, Diderot also wrote, "Were an analytical dictionary of the sciences and arts nothing more than a methodical combination of their elements, I would still ask whom it behooves to fabricate good elements." Diderot viewed the ideal encyclopedia as an index of connections. He realized that all knowledge could never be amassed in one work, but he hoped the relations among विषय could be.

The Encyclopédie in turn inspired the venerable Encyclopædia Britannica, which had a modest beginning in Scotland: the first edition, issued between 1768 and 1771, had just three hastily completed volumes – A–B, C–L, and M–Z – with a total of 2,391 pages. By 1797, when the third edition was completed, it had been expanded to 18 volumes addressing a full range of topics, with लेख contributed by a range of authorities on their विषय.

The German-language Conversations-Lexikon was published at Leipzig from 1796 to 1808, in 6 volumes. Paralleling other 18th century encyclopedias, its scope was expanded beyond that of earlier publications, in an effort at comprehensiveness. It was, however, intended not for scholarly use but to provide results of research and discovery in a simple and popular form without extensive detail. This format, a contrast to the Encyclopædia Britannica, was widely imitated by later 19th century encyclopedias in Britain, the United States, France, Spain, Italy and other countries. Of the influential late-18th century and early-19th century encyclopedias, the Conversations-Lexikon is perhaps most similar in form to today's encyclopedias.

A typical custom-made encyclopedia engraving by Maurice Dessertenne for the Nouveau Larousse illustré (France, 1898–1907)

The early years of the 19th century saw a flowering of encyclopedia publishing in the United Kingdom, Europe and America. In England Rees's Cyclopaedia (1802–1819) contains an enormous amount in information about the industrial and scientific revolutions of the time. A feature of these publications is the high-quality illustrations made by engravers like Wilson Lowry of art work supplied by specialist draftsmen like John Farey, Jr. Encyclopaedias were published in Scotland, as a result of the Scottish Enlightenment, for education there was of a higher standard than in the rest of the United Kingdom.

The 17-volume Grand dictionnaire universel du XIXe siècle and its supplements were published in France from 1866 to 1890.

Encyclopædia Britannica appeared in various editions throughout the century, and the growth of popular education and the Mechanics Institutes, spearheaded by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge led to the production of the Penny Cyclopaedia, as its title suggests issued in weekly numbers at a penny each like a newspaper.

In the early 20th century, the Encyclopædia Britannica reached its eleventh edition, and inexpensive encyclopedias such as Harmsworth's Encyclopaedia and Everyman's Encyclopaedia were common.

२०वे शतक

1913 advertisement for Encyclopædia Britannica, the oldest and one of the largest contemporary English encyclopedias.
विकिपीडिया is one of the first "user generated content" encyclopedias.

Popular and affordable encyclopaedias such as Harmsworth's Universal Encyclopaedia and the Children's Encyclopaedia appeared in the early 1920s.

In the United States, the 1950s and 1960s saw the introduction of several large popular encyclopedias, often sold on installment plans. The best known of these were World Book and Funk and Wagnalls.

The second half of the 20th century also saw the publication of several encyclopedias that were notable for synthesizing important topics in specific fields, often by means of new works authored by significant researchers. Such encyclopedias included The Encyclopedia of Philosophy (first published in 1967 and now in its second edition), and Elsevier's Handbooks In Economics[१४] series. Encyclopedias of at least one volume in size exist for most if not all academic disciplines, including, typically, such narrow topics such as bioethics and African American history.

By the late 20th century, encyclopedias were being published on CD-ROMs for use with personal computers. Microsoft's Encarta was a landmark example, as it had no print version, although a printed version of a Microsoft encyclopedia existed. Articles were supplemented with video and audio files as well as numerous high-quality images. Similar encyclopedias were also being published online, and made available by subscription. All editions of Encarta except Encarta Japan are being discontinued as of October 31, 2009.[१५] Encarta Japan will be discontinued on December 31, 2009.

Traditional encyclopedias are written by a number of employed text writers, usually people with an academic degree, and distributed as proprietary content.

Encyclopedias are essentially derivative from what has gone before, and particularly in the 19th century, copyright infringement was common among encyclopedia editors. However, modern encyclopedias are not merely larger compendia, including all that came before them. To make space for modern topics, valuable material of historic use regularly had to be discarded, at least before the advent of digital encyclopedias. Moreover, the opinions and world views of a particular generation can be observed in the encyclopedic writing of the time. For these reasons, old encyclopedias are a useful source of historical information, especially for a record of changes in science and technology.[१६] As of 2007, old encyclopedias whose copyright has expired, such as the 1911 edition of Britannica, are also the only free content English encyclopedias released in print form. However, works such as the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, which were created in the public domain, exist as free content encyclopedias in other languages.

मुक्त विश्वकोश

The concept of a new free encyclopedia began with the Interpedia proposal on Usenet in 1993, which outlined an Internet-based online encyclopedia to which anyone could submit content and that would be freely accessible. Early projects in this vein included Everything2 and Open Site. In 1999, Richard Stallman proposed the GNUPedia, an online encyclopedia which, similar to the GNU operating system, would be a "generic" resource. The concept was very similar to Interpedia, but more in line with Stallman's GNU philosophy.

It was not until Nupedia and later विकिपीडिया that a stable free encyclopedia project was able to be established on the Internet. The English Wikipedia became the world's largest encyclopedia in 2004 at the 300,000 लेख stage[१७] and by late 2005, Wikipedia had produced over two million लेख in more than 80 languages with content licensed under the copyleft GNU Free Documentation License. As of August 2009, Wikipedia has over 3 million लेख in English and well over 10 million combined in over 250 languages. Since 2003, other free encyclopedias like Citizendium and Knol have appeared.

२१वे शतक

चित्र:Encarta visual browser.jpg
Encarta visual browser, an example of 21st century encyclopedias.

The encyclopedia's hierarchical structure and evolving nature is particularly adaptable to a disk-based or on-line computer format, and all major printed multi-विषय encyclopedias had moved to this method of delivery by the end of the 20th century. Disk-based, typically DVD-ROM or CD-ROM format, publications have the advantage of being cheaply produced and easily portable. Additionally, they can include media which are impossible to store in the printed format, such as animations, audio, and video. Hyperlinking between conceptually related items is also a significant benefit, although even Diderot's encyclopedia had cross-referencing. On-line encyclopedias offer the additional advantage of being dynamic: new information can be presented almost immediately, rather than waiting for the next release of a static format, as with a disk- or paper-based publication. Many printed encyclopedias traditionally published annual supplemental volumes ("yearbooks") to update events between editions, as a partial solution to the problem of staying up-to-date, but this of course required the reader to check both the main volumes and the supplemental volume(s). Some disk-based encyclopedias offer subscription-based access to online updates, which are then integrated with the content already on the user's hard disk in a manner not possible with a printed encyclopedia.

Information in a printed encyclopedia necessarily needs some form of hierarchical structure. Traditionally, the method employed is to present the information ordered alphabetically by the लेख title. However with the advent of dynamic electronic formats the need to impose a pre-determined structure is less necessary. Nonetheless, most electronic encyclopedias still offer a range of organizational strategies for the लेख, such as by विषय, area, or alphabetically.

CD-ROM and Internet-based encyclopedias also offer greater search abilities than printed versions. While the printed versions rely on indexes to assist in searching for topics, computer accessible versions allow searching through लेख text for keywords or phrases.

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नोंदी

  1. ^ http://library.rcc.edu/riveHELLOrside/glossaryoflibraryterms.htm#e. Unknown parameter |आर्काइव्हदुवा= ignored (सहाय्य); Unknown parameter |आर्काइव्हदिनांक= ignored (सहाय्य); Missing or empty |title= (सहाय्य) Glossary of Library Terms. Riverside City College, Digital Library/Learning Resource Center. Retrieved on: November 17, 2007.
  2. ^ साचा:Cite conference
  3. ^ Sorcha Carey. p. 17. Missing or empty |title= (सहाय्य)
  4. ^ "encyclopaedia", Chambers Reference Online; "encyclopaedia", AskOxford.
  5. ^ "encyclopaedia", Bartleby.com; "Encyclopaedia", Merriam Webster.
  6. ^ Modern lexicography By Henri Béjoint pg 30
  7. ^ a b c See "Encyclopedia" in Dictionary of the Middle Ages.
  8. ^ P.D. Wightman (1953), The Growth of Scientific Ideas
  9. ^ Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 102.
  10. ^ Neil Kenny. pp. 12–13. Missing or empty |title= (सहाय्य)
  11. ^ Himmelfarb, Gertrude. Missing or empty |title= (सहाय्य)
  12. ^ Jean le Rond d'Alembert, "Preliminary Discourse," in Denis Diderot's The Encyclopédie: Selections, ed. and trans. Stephen J. Gendzier (1967), cited in Hillmelfarb 2004
  13. ^ Denis Diderot, Rameau's Nephew and Other Works, trans. and ed. Jacques Barzun and Ralph H. Bowen (1956), cited in Himmelfarb 2004
  14. ^ Economics and Finance - Elsevier
  15. ^ Important Notice: MSN Encarta to be Discontinued (MSN Encarta)
  16. ^ Kobasa, Paul A. "Encyclopedia." World Book Online Reference Center. 2008. [Place of access.] 13 Jan. 2008 <http://www.worldbookonline.com/wb/Login?ed=wb&tu=%2Fwb%2FArticle%3Fid%3Dar180800>
  17. ^ "Wikipedia Passes 300,000 Articles making it the worlds largest encyclopedia", Linux Reviews, 2004 July 7.

संदर्भ

  • EtymologyOnline
  • Bergenholtz, H., Nielsen, S., Tarp, S. (eds.): Lexicography at a Crossroads: Dictionaries and Encyclopedias Today, Lexicographical Tools Tomorrow. Peter Lang 2009. ISBN 978-3-03911-799-4
  • Blom Phillip, Enlightening the World: Encyclopaedie, the Book that Changed the Course of History, (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005)
  • Collison, Robert, Encyclopaedias: Their History Throughout the Ages, 2nd ed. (New York, London: Hafner, 1966)
  • Darnton, Robert, The business of enlightenment : a publishing history of the Encyclopédie, 1775–1800 (Cambridge: Belknap Press, 1979) ISBN 0-674-08785-2
  • Kafker, Frank A. (ed.), Notable encyclopedias of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: nine predecessors of the Encyclopédie (Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 1981) ISBN
  • Kafker, Frank A. (ed.), Notable encyclopedias of the late eighteenth century: eleven successors of the Encyclopédie (Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 1994) ISBN
  • Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
  • Rozenzweig, Roy. "Can History Be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past." Journal of American History Volume 93, Number 1 (June, 2006): 117–46. Also available online here from the Center for History and New Media.
  • Walsh, S. Padraig, Anglo-American general encyclopedias: a historical bibliography, 1703–1967 (New York: Bowker, 1968, 270 pp.) Includes a historical bibliography, arranged alphabetically, with brief notes on the history of many encyclopedias; a chronology; indexes by editor and publisher; bibliography; and 18 pages of notes from a 1965 American Library Association symposium on encyclopedias.
  • Yeo, Richard R., Encyclopaedic visions : scientific dictionaries and enlightenment culture (Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001) ISBN 0-521-65191-3

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