घग्गर-हकरा नदी

नदी
Tributary	Kaushalya river, Sarsuti
देश	भारत, पाकिस्तान
या राजकीय व प्रशासकीय सीमांतर्गत असणारे स्थान	हिमाचल प्रदेश, हरियाणा, पंजाब, राजस्थान, पंजाब
भौगोलिक गुणक	२९°२९′१५″N ७४°५३′३३″E, ३०°४६′२१″N ७७°३′५″E, २९°१७′२३″N ७४°८′११″E

घग्गर-हकरा नदी ही भारत आणि पाकिस्तानमधील एक अधूनमधून वाहणारी नदी आहे जी फक्त पावसाळ्यात वाहते. ओट्टू बंधाऱ्यापूर्वी ही नदी घग्गर म्हणून ओळखली जाते व नंतर ती हकरा म्हणून ओळखली जाते. हडप्पापूर्व काळात घग्गर ही सतलजची उपनदी होती. ^[१]^[२]^[३]

सतलज नदीने सुमारे ८,०००-१०,००० वर्षांपूर्वी आपला मार्ग बदलला, ज्यामुळे घग्गर-हक्रा ही मान्सून नद्यांची एक प्रणाली म्हणून थार वाळवंटात संपली.^[१]^[४] सुमारे ५,००० वर्षांपूर्वी नद्यांना पाणी देणारे मान्सून कमी झाले जिथे सिंधू संस्कृतीची भरभराट झाली होती. प्रौढ सिंधू संस्कृती (२६००-१९०० ईसापूर्व) मधील मोठ्या संख्येने स्थळे पाकिस्तानमधील (कोरड्या) हाक्राच्या मधल्या प्रवाहात आढळतात. सुमारे ४,००० वर्षांपूर्वी, पावसाळा आणखी कमी झाल्यामुळे सिंधू संस्कृतीचा ऱ्हास झाला आणि घग्गर-हकरा नदी सुकून एक लहान हंगामी नदी बनली.^[५]^[६]

१९ व्या आणि २० व्या शतकाच्या सुरुवातीच्या विद्वानांनी, तसेच काही अलीकडील लेखकांनी असे सुचवले आहे की घग्गर-हकरा ही ऋग्वेदात उल्लेख केलेल्या सरस्वती नदीचे अवशेष असू शकतात, ज्यांना हिमालयीन नद्यांनी पाणी दिले जात होते.^[७]

संदर्भ

1 2 Singh et al. 2017.
↑ Britannica, Dale Hoiberg, Indu Ramchandani (2000). Students' Britannica India, Volumes 1–5 (इंग्रजी भाषेत). Popular Prakashan, 2000. ISBN 978-0-85229-760-5. The Ghaggar River rises in the Shiwalik Range, northwestern Himachal Pradesh State, and flows about 320 km southwest through Haryana State, where it receives the Saraswati River. Beyond the Ottu Barrage, the Ghaggar River is known as the Hakra River which loses itself in the Thar Desert. Just southwest of Sirsa it feeds two irrigation canals that extend into Rajasthan.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Khonde et al. 2017.
↑ Clift et al. 2012.
↑ Giosan et al. 2012.
↑ Maemoku et al. 2013.
↑ Sanyal, Sanjeev (10 July 2013). Land of the seven rivers : a brief history of India's geography (इंग्रजी भाषेत). Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-342093-4. OCLC 855957425.

संदर्भग्रंथ

^{[note १]}

^{[note २]}

^{[note ३]}

↑
Giosan et al. (2012):
- Giosan et al. (2012, p. 1688): "Contrary to earlier assumptions that a large glacier-fed Himalayan river, identified by some with the mythical Sarasvati, watered the Harappan heartland on the interfluve between the Indus and Ganges basins, we show that only monsoonal-fed rivers were active there during the Holocene."
- Giosan et al. (2012, p. 1689): "Numerous speculations have advanced the idea that the Ghaggar-Hakra fluvial system, at times identified with the lost mythical river of Sarasvati (e.g., 4, 5, 7, 19), was a large glacier-fed Himalayan river. Potential sources for this river include the Yamuna River, the Sutlej River, or both rivers. However, the lack of large-scale incision on the interfluve demonstrates that large, glacier-fed rivers did not flow across the Ghaggar-Hakra region during the Holocene."
- "Numerous speculations have advanced the idea that the Ghaggar-Hakra fluvial system, at times identified with the lost mythical river of Sarasvati (e.g., 4, 5, 7, 19), was a large glacier fed Himalayan river. Potential sources for this river include the Yamuna River, the Sutlej River, or both rivers. However, the lack of large-scale incision on the interfluve demonstrates that large, glacier-fed rivers did not flow across the Ghaggar-Hakra region during the Holocene.
- The present Ghaggar-Hakra valley and its tributary rivers are currently dry or have seasonal flows. Yet rivers were undoubtedly active in this region during the Urban Harappan Phase. We recovered sandy fluvial deposits approximately 5;400 y old at Fort Abbas in Pakistan (SI Text), and recent work (33) on the upper Ghaggar-Hakra interfluve in India also documented Holocene channel sands that are approximately 4;300 y old. On the upper interfluve, fine-grained floodplain deposition continued until the end of the Late Harappan Phase, as recent as 2,900 y ago (33) (Fig. 2B). This widespread fluvial redistribution of sediment suggests that reliable monsoon rains were able to sustain perennial rivers earlier during the Holocene and explains why Harappan settlements flourished along the entire Ghaggar-Hakra system without access to a glacier-fed river."
Valdiya (2013) dispute this, arguing that it was a large perennial river draining the high mountains as late as 3700–2500 years ago. Giosan et al. (2013) have responded to, and rejected Valdiya's arguments.
↑ Mughal (1997) concludes that during the Bronze Age the Ghaggar-Hakra sometimes carried more, sometimes less water. Mughal (1997) states that satellite photography has shown that the Ghaggar-Hakra was a large river that dried up several times, as corroborated by an isotope study by Tripathi et al. (2004)^{[web १]} According to M. R. Mughal, the Hakra dried-up at the latest in 1900 BCE,^[१] but Tripathi et al. (2004) conclude that it took place much earlier. Henri-Paul Francfort, utilising images from the French satellite SPOT two decades ago, found that the large river Sarasvati is pre-Harappan altogether, and started drying up already in the middle of the 4th millennium BCE; during Harappan times only a complex irrigation-canal network was being used. The date should therefore be pushed back to c. 3800 BCE.
↑ In a survey conducted by M.R. Mughal between 1974 and 1977, as cited in Gupta (1995), over 400 sites were mapped along 300 miles of the Hakra river. According to Bryant (2001), the majority of these sites were dated to the fourth or third millennium BCE. S.P. Gupta, in Gupta (1995, p. 183), Gupta (1999), counts over 600 sites of the Indus civilization on the Ghaggar–Hakra river and its tributaries. V.N. Misra, as cited in Gupta (1999, p. 144), states that over 530 Harappan sites (of the more than 800 known sites, not including Late Harappan or OCP) are located on the Ghaggar-Hakra. According to Misra (1992), only 90–96 Indus Valley sites have been discovered on the Indus and its tributaries; about 36 sites on the Indus river itself. The other sites are mainly in Kutch-Saurashtra (nearly 200 sites), Yamuna Valley (nearly 70 late Harappan sites) and in the Indus Valley, in Baluchistan, and in the NW Frontier Province (less than 100 sites).

Sindhav (2016, p. 103) notes that these claims of a large number of Ghaggar-Hakra sites are politically motivated and exaggerated. While the Indus remained an active river, the Ghaggar-Hakra dried-up, leaving many sites undisturbed. Sidhav further notes that the Ghaggar-Hakra was a tributary of the Indus, so the proposed Sarasvati nomenclature is redundant.

चुका उधृत करा: "note" नावाच्या गटाकरिता <ref>खूणपताका उपलब्ध आहेत, पण संबंधीत <references group="note"/> खूण मिळाली नाही.

↑ "Hakra". Totally Explained. 12 जुलै 2012 रोजी मूळ पान पासून संग्रहित. 20 ऑगस्ट 2009 रोजी पाहिले.

चुका उधृत करा: "web" नावाच्या गटाकरिता <ref>खूणपताका उपलब्ध आहेत, पण संबंधीत <references group="web"/> खूण मिळाली नाही.

↑ Mughal 1997.

[FOOTNOTESingh_et_al.2017-1] 1 2 Singh et al. 2017.

[ref42refar-2] Britannica, Dale Hoiberg, Indu Ramchandani (2000). Students' Britannica India, Volumes 1–5 (इंग्रजी भाषेत). Popular Prakashan, 2000. ISBN 978-0-85229-760-5. The Ghaggar River rises in the Shiwalik Range, northwestern Himachal Pradesh State, and flows about 320 km southwest through Haryana State, where it receives the Saraswati River. Beyond the Ottu Barrage, the Ghaggar River is known as the Hakra River which loses itself in the Thar Desert. Just southwest of Sirsa it feeds two irrigation canals that extend into Rajasthan.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[FOOTNOTEKhonde_et_al.2017-3] Khonde et al. 2017.

[FOOTNOTEClift_et_al.2012-4] Clift et al. 2012.

[FOOTNOTEGiosan_et_al.2012-5] Giosan et al. 2012.

[FOOTNOTEMaemokuShitaokaNagatomoYagi2013-6] Maemoku et al. 2013.

[7] Sanyal, Sanjeev (10 July 2013). Land of the seven rivers : a brief history of India's geography (इंग्रजी भाषेत). Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-342093-4. OCLC 855957425.

[Giosan.2012-8] Giosan et al. (2012):
Giosan et al. (2012, p. 1688): "Contrary to earlier assumptions that a large glacier-fed Himalayan river, identified by some with the mythical Sarasvati, watered the Harappan heartland on the interfluve between the Indus and Ganges basins, we show that only monsoonal-fed rivers were active there during the Holocene."

Giosan et al. (2012, p. 1689): "Numerous speculations have advanced the idea that the Ghaggar-Hakra fluvial system, at times identified with the lost mythical river of Sarasvati (e.g., 4, 5, 7, 19), was a large glacier-fed Himalayan river. Potential sources for this river include the Yamuna River, the Sutlej River, or both rivers. However, the lack of large-scale incision on the interfluve demonstrates that large, glacier-fed rivers did not flow across the Ghaggar-Hakra region during the Holocene."

"Numerous speculations have advanced the idea that the Ghaggar-Hakra fluvial system, at times identified with the lost mythical river of Sarasvati (e.g., 4, 5, 7, 19), was a large glacier fed Himalayan river. Potential sources for this river include the Yamuna River, the Sutlej River, or both rivers. However, the lack of large-scale incision on the interfluve demonstrates that large, glacier-fed rivers did not flow across the Ghaggar-Hakra region during the Holocene.

The present Ghaggar-Hakra valley and its tributary rivers are currently dry or have seasonal flows. Yet rivers were undoubtedly active in this region during the Urban Harappan Phase. We recovered sandy fluvial deposits approximately 5;400 y old at Fort Abbas in Pakistan (SI Text), and recent work (33) on the upper Ghaggar-Hakra interfluve in India also documented Holocene channel sands that are approximately 4;300 y old. On the upper interfluve, fine-grained floodplain deposition continued until the end of the Late Harappan Phase, as recent as 2,900 y ago (33) (Fig. 2B). This widespread fluvial redistribution of sediment suggests that reliable monsoon rains were able to sustain perennial rivers earlier during the Holocene and explains why Harappan settlements flourished along the entire Ghaggar-Hakra system without access to a glacier-fed river."
Valdiya (2013) dispute this, arguing that it was a large perennial river draining the high mountains as late as 3700–2500 years ago. Giosan et al. (2013) have responded to, and rejected Valdiya's arguments.

[mwlw] Giosan et al. (2012, p. 1688): "Contrary to earlier assumptions that a large glacier-fed Himalayan river, identified by some with the mythical Sarasvati, watered the Harappan heartland on the interfluve between the Indus and Ganges basins, we show that only monsoonal-fed rivers were active there during the Holocene."

[mwmg] Giosan et al. (2012, p. 1689): "Numerous speculations have advanced the idea that the Ghaggar-Hakra fluvial system, at times identified with the lost mythical river of Sarasvati (e.g., 4, 5, 7, 19), was a large glacier-fed Himalayan river. Potential sources for this river include the Yamuna River, the Sutlej River, or both rivers. However, the lack of large-scale incision on the interfluve demonstrates that large, glacier-fed rivers did not flow across the Ghaggar-Hakra region during the Holocene."

[mwnQ] "Numerous speculations have advanced the idea that the Ghaggar-Hakra fluvial system, at times identified with the lost mythical river of Sarasvati (e.g., 4, 5, 7, 19), was a large glacier fed Himalayan river. Potential sources for this river include the Yamuna River, the Sutlej River, or both rivers. However, the lack of large-scale incision on the interfluve demonstrates that large, glacier-fed rivers did not flow across the Ghaggar-Hakra region during the Holocene.

[mwng] The present Ghaggar-Hakra valley and its tributary rivers are currently dry or have seasonal flows. Yet rivers were undoubtedly active in this region during the Urban Harappan Phase. We recovered sandy fluvial deposits approximately 5;400 y old at Fort Abbas in Pakistan (SI Text), and recent work (33) on the upper Ghaggar-Hakra interfluve in India also documented Holocene channel sands that are approximately 4;300 y old. On the upper interfluve, fine-grained floodplain deposition continued until the end of the Late Harappan Phase, as recent as 2,900 y ago (33) (Fig. 2B). This widespread fluvial redistribution of sediment suggests that reliable monsoon rains were able to sustain perennial rivers earlier during the Holocene and explains why Harappan settlements flourished along the entire Ghaggar-Hakra system without access to a glacier-fed river."

[Drying-up-11] Mughal (1997) concludes that during the Bronze Age the Ghaggar-Hakra sometimes carried more, sometimes less water. Mughal (1997) states that satellite photography has shown that the Ghaggar-Hakra was a large river that dried up several times, as corroborated by an isotope study by Tripathi et al. (2004)^{[web १]} According to M. R. Mughal, the Hakra dried-up at the latest in 1900 BCE,^[१] but Tripathi et al. (2004) conclude that it took place much earlier. Henri-Paul Francfort, utilising images from the French satellite SPOT two decades ago, found that the large river Sarasvati is pre-Harappan altogether, and started drying up already in the middle of the 4th millennium BCE; during Harappan times only a complex irrigation-canal network was being used. The date should therefore be pushed back to c. 3800 BCE.

[Number_of_sites-12] In a survey conducted by M.R. Mughal between 1974 and 1977, as cited in Gupta (1995), over 400 sites were mapped along 300 miles of the Hakra river. According to Bryant (2001), the majority of these sites were dated to the fourth or third millennium BCE. S.P. Gupta, in Gupta (1995, p. 183), Gupta (1999), counts over 600 sites of the Indus civilization on the Ghaggar–Hakra river and its tributaries. V.N. Misra, as cited in Gupta (1999, p. 144), states that over 530 Harappan sites (of the more than 800 known sites, not including Late Harappan or OCP) are located on the Ghaggar-Hakra. According to Misra (1992), only 90–96 Indus Valley sites have been discovered on the Indus and its tributaries; about 36 sites on the Indus river itself. The other sites are mainly in Kutch-Saurashtra (nearly 200 sites), Yamuna Valley (nearly 70 late Harappan sites) and in the Indus Valley, in Baluchistan, and in the NW Frontier Province (less than 100 sites).

Sindhav (2016, p. 103) notes that these claims of a large number of Ghaggar-Hakra sites are politically motivated and exaggerated. While the Indus remained an active river, the Ghaggar-Hakra dried-up, leaving many sites undisturbed. Sidhav further notes that the Ghaggar-Hakra was a tributary of the Indus, so the proposed Sarasvati nomenclature is redundant.

[9] "Hakra". Totally Explained. 12 जुलै 2012 रोजी मूळ पान पासून संग्रहित. 20 ऑगस्ट 2009 रोजी पाहिले.

[FOOTNOTEMughal1997-10] Mughal 1997.

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